There is no surviving Roman drill manual from the 1st- and 2nd-centuries AD, thus it is impossible to reconstruct a wholly authentic drill display. Clues are, however, provided in Epitoma Rei Militaris (“Epitome of Military Science”) written in the late 4th- or early 5th-century by Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus. His treatise harks back to an early age (our period) and uses his understanding of the Roman army of that time to argue for a series of military reforms. Vegetius' work is therefore not contemporary with the army of the 1st- and 2nd-centuries, but from it a system of simple movements has been assembled and couched in the Latin vocabulary used by writers on military subjects.
Drill commands are given in Latin, but before classics scholars wince, they are mostly in the “camp” or “dog” Latin of soldiers rather than that spoken by the literate and well schooled upper classes. Most military men closer to our modern age have shown a remarkable ability to abbreviate or corrupt the native language to sharpen up their drill movements. THE RMRS has, therefore, followed the same practice believing it unlikely that human nature has changed so much even after 2,000 years.
Forward
The aim of drill is to produce a soldier who is proud, alert and obedient. It also provides the basis of teamwork.
Whenever drill is taught or practised those in command must stress its object. It must never be used as a punishment, but always as a means of raising standards within a body of men. Smart drill is, however, dependent upon discipline, practice and the correction of faults. Correction should not be taken as criticism but rather as assistance. Each man must become aware of his own contribution to the squad. He must be able to maintain his enthusiasm and cheerfulness no matter how many times he is corrected and despite tiredness and discomfort.
Equally important for the portrayal of Roman soldiers is to remember that military discipline is founded on drill. But it is also based on mutual trust and respect, and derived from pride: pride in the unit and its performance, and pride in one's personal appearance and one's behaviour.
So, while we do this for fun, do not forget that to represent a well drilled, disciplined body of men, the discipline must also come from within.
The Training Ethos
The drills in this manual are laid out and designed to be used as a set of increasingly difficult skills lessons. In common with modern practice, and although not formally stated, the skills lessons are intended to be delivered under the following conditions:
Place and time:
Conditions:
Equipment:
Level:
As appropriate.
Field or Indoor Arena.
See the GENERAL heading to each set.
To the instructor's satisfaction.
It is imperative that every member of the Drill Squad gives unhesitating and unquestioning obedience when representing the unit before the public. Military discipline, drill practice and showmanship must, and will, be maintained at all times while representing the group, whether in kit or out of it.
The standards for the Drill Squad are set deliberately high in both equipment and performance. It is up to every member to uphold these standards and also to ensure that, wherever possible, they are improved.
It is intended to use Songs, Chants, Battle Cries and Drill Commands in Latin to help create the illusion to the public of a shift in time. Explanation, demonstration, imitation and practice (EDIP) will be given in due course, but the sooner the drills are learnt, the sooner the one will be on parade.
The Art of Giving Commands
All words of command must be clear and powerful since the way in which they are given affects the reaction which they inspire. A word of command is divided into three parts:
Introductory: Informs the squad what movement is about to be executed, e.g. Dextrorsum vos...
Cautionary: The drawn out and loud continuation, e.g. Desponi...
Executive: The high pitched, sharp command, e.g. ...Te!
Sometimes there is no need for an Introductory word of command and soldiers will only hear the Cautionary and Executive words, e.g. Inten...Te!
Importantly, where there are conjoined parts, the rhythm of command should not be broken. The time intervals between the Cautionary and Executive words should be ideally two paces and one pace respectively; but this can altered by many other factors.
A typical command sequence may be “VEXILATIO INTENTE” given as:
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Vexilatio! Snapped out, loud and clear!
Inten... Loud and clear but with a drawn out last syllable...
...Te! Barked out!
The Executive word of command MUST be given on the correct foot when marching to avoid unsightly straggles and imprecise alignments.
Later, if chosen to command a squad, individual instruction in the art of giving commands will be provided.
Alignment:
Covering:
Depth:
Distance:
Dressing:
File:
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Single File:
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Blank File:
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Flank:
Directing Flank:
Frontage:
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Interval:
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Line:
Markers:
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Order (Close or Open):
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Rank:
Supernumerary Rank:
A straight line on which a squad is formed or is to form.
The act of placing oneself directly behind another body.
The space occupied by a squad from front to rear.
The space between men or bodies from front to rear.
The act of aligning oneself with and covering others within a squad.
Either two or three men in different ranks who are covering each other, or a squad in two ranks facing a flank.
Men one behind another on a frontage of one at normal marching distance.
A file in which there is no centre and rear man, or no rear man, due to the inequality of numbers within a squad. This file is the second from the left in two in ranks.
Either side of a squad as opposed to its front or rear.
The flank by which a squad takes its dressing.
The extent of ground covered laterally by a squad, measured from flank to flank.
The lateral space measured between men or squads on the same alignment.
Men formed on the same alignment.
Men employed to mark points on which a movement is to be directed or by which a formation is to be regulated.
The distance between ranks in line which is either 750 mm (30 in) or 1500 mm (60 in) depending on circumstances.
A line of men side by side.
The extra rank, third in two ranks, formed by the squad's officers depending on circumstances.
Foot drill at the halt forms the basis for all other manoeuvres. The intention from hereon is to present the elements of a typical drill session in a readily understandable format, providing step-by-step instructions to speed up an individual's inclusion in the Drill Squad.
As all words of command are in Latin, the English meaning is relegated to a secondary place, but retained for information. Do not worry about the Latin at this stage as it only looks hard. With practice, reacting to Latin words of command becomes second nature. The agreed pronunciation of Latin words and phrases are given in the brackets.
The term “unarmed” means not carrying a pilum (javelin) or hasta (spear), or scutum (shield). If available, a gladius or spatha (short and long swords, respectively) should be worn - as should a tunica (tunic) and lorica (armour). It is always preferable to train in the clothing and equipment one will be wearing for displays. Where such items are not available, however, do try wearing something like them, e.g. a large t-shirt, shorts and sandals, to acclimatise to what some may initially feel is strange attire.
“IINTENTE” is otherwise known as the position of Attention and is the position from which all other drill movements can originate. Both feet are flat and firm on the ground, heels in line and touching, with the feet set at an angle of 45° from a line, front centre of the body (see below), both knees are braced. Arms are straight and held into the sides of the body, the forearms forced in behind the hip bones and the wrists straight. The hands are closed with the thumb vertical and facing to the front, the backs of the fingers touching the thigh. The shoul ders are held down and back to bring the chest to a normal position without straining or stiffening. The head is held up with the chin raised and the mouth closed. The eyes are open - still, and looking just above their own height. The body is now in the position of Attention.
“QUIETE” is only a slightly relaxed position of alertness. Immediately on receipt of the executive word of command the left foot is moved smartly to a position 300 mm (12 in) from the right foot. Both knees are braced. At the same time, the arms are forced behind the back by the shortest possible route keeping the arms straight. Place the back of the right hand in the palm of the left hand, the right thumb crossed over the left thumb, fingers straight together. As for the position of Attention, the remainder of the body is held erect and square to the front. Do not tense the body, however, as you may be stood “At Ease” for long periods.
“OTIOSE” is a very relaxed position of alertness. On the word of command, the body is allowed to relax, while still at the At Ease position. Small movements of the body are acceptable (to relax muscles and joints) but not the feet. The officer in command may permit quiet conversation (i.e. cannot be overheard by the public) within the ranks, if appropriate.
Immediately on the word of command “Vexilatio!”, the body is braced up to the position of “QUIETE” (At Ease).
Immediately on the executive word of command “INTENTE”, the left foot is moved smartly to beside the right to resume the correct position of Attention. At the same time, the arms are forced to the side of the body to resume the correct position of Attention (as shown above). The body is frozen in this position.
The basic positions of INTENTE (Attention), QUIETE (Stand at Ease) and OTIOSE (Stand Easy) have been used to introduce foot drill. More importantly, these movements enable an individual or body of men to form a base from which other drill movements can follow in a smart, uniform manner. The next words of command are used to form and dress the basic drill squad.
At the command “MILES DEXTER!” (“Right Marker!”), the nominated soldier steps forward and assumes the position of “OTIOSE” (Stand Easy) in the place indicated to him. The Miles Dexter will normally be an experienced squad member.
The basic formation consists of two ranks (front and rear) in close order, as shown opposite. Auxilia normally fall in to the left of the Legionarii in the squad.
On receiving the command “AD SIGNA!” (lit. “to the standard”, but for our purposes meaning “Fall In”), each man moves quickly to his assigned place. If no such place has been assigned, then always fall in to the LEFT of the designated Miles Dexter (Right Marker). There will be an interval of about one arm's length (with hand clenched) between each man and a distance of 750 mm (30 in) between the two ranks (measured from the heels of one rank to the toes of the rank behind it). The distance in close order may be measured by the men in the right hand file raising their right arm in line with and in front of their right shoulder. The knuckles of the clenched hand should just reach the shoulder of the man in front. Having fallen in to the squad, each man automatically assumes the position of “OTIOSE” (Stand Easy).
Where there is an inequality of numbers within the squad, the file second from the left in two in ranks is left blank (as shown above).
Within the drill squad, every man must be in line with, and at the correct interval from, the man to the left or right of him; he must also be directly behind, and at the correct distance from, his equivalent in the rank in front of him. The words of command “DEXTRORSUM VOS DESPONITE” enable an individual or squad to take up alignment correctly in a smart, uniform manner. This is Dressing. Immediately on the executive word of command (-te!), the:
Miles Dexter (Right Marker): Stands fast in the position of “INTENTE”.
Front Rank (only): The head and eyes are turned through an angle of 90° to the right so that they look squarely over the right shoulder. At the same time, the right arm is forced upward through 90° to the right, hand clenched, arm parallel to the ground at shoulder height. The feet are moved in short, quick paces until the body is correctly aligned with the man to the immediate right and the clenched right hand is in a position behind the latter's shoulder blade. Throughout the movement, the remainder of the body is held erect and square to the front.
Rear Rank (only): The head and eyes are turned through an angle of 90° to the right so that they look squarely over the right shoulder. The right arm of men in the rear rank are not raised through 90°. The feet are moved in short, quick paces until the body is correctly aligned with the man to the immediate right. Ensure the file is correctly covered with the man to the immediate front.
Remain frozen in this position until the word of command “INTENTE”. Immediately, the head and eyes are forced through an angle of 90° to face front, and the front rank return their right arm smartly to the side of the body.​​​​​​​
The command “ORDINES APERITE” is used at the Halt to open a gap between the ranks equivalent to half a Roman passus (pace). Immediately on the executive word of command (-te!), the:
Front Rank: Stands fast in the position of “INTENTE”.
Rear Rank: One full pace of 750 mm (30 in) is taken backwards with the left foot, placing the foot flat and firm on the ground. The right foot is moved smartly to beside the left to resume the correct position of “INTENTE”.
Note: The Roman passus (pace) is equivalent to two full paces of 750 mm (30 in). Therefore the number of paces given in the command must be doubled, e.g.:
Unum Passus (Oo-num Pas-oos): Two paces of 750 mm (30 in).
Duos Passus (Do-oos Pas-oos): Four paces of 750 mm (30 in).
Tres Passus (Trays Pas-oos): Six paces of 750 mm (30 in).
The command “ORDINES CLAUDITE” is used at the Halt to return to close order. Immediately on the executive word of command (-te!), the:
Front Rank: Stands fast in the position of “INTENTE”.
Rear Rank: One full pace of 750 mm (30 in) is taken forwards with the left foot, placing the foot flat and firm on the ground. The right foot is moved smartly to beside the left to resume the correct position of “INTENTE”.
The next stage in foot drill are the Turns at the Halt. These movements are taught to enable an individual or squad to turn to the Left, Right or About at the Halt, in a smart, uniform manner.
(1) Immediately on the word of command, lift the right foot clear of the ground, turn it through an angle of 90° to the right and place the foot flat and firm on the ground, with the right heel behind the heel of the left foot.
(2) The head, shoulders and body are forced through an angle of 90°, while at the same time the left foot is placed flat and firm on the ground alongside the right. The body is frozen in the position of “INTENTE”.
As for “DEXTRORSUM VERTITE” except the left foot is moved first and the body rotated through an angle of 90° to the left.
The command “AD TERGUM VERTITE” enables an individual or squad to turn through an angle of 180° to the right at the Halt, in a smart, uniform manner. Immediately on the word of command, perform two consecutive right turns, as for “DEXTRORSUM VERTITE”, to face in the opposite direction.​
​(1) Immediately on the word of command, lift the right foot clear of the ground, turn it through an angle of 45° to the right and place the foot flat and firm on the ground, with the right heel behind the heel of the left foot.
(2) The head, shoulders and body are forced through an angle of 45°, while at the same time the left foot is placed flat and firm on the ground alongside the right. The body is frozen in the position of “INTENTE”.
Note: The uusual rhythm to the words of command is broken, i.e. “Flek-EE-TAY” instead of “Flek-tee-TAY”, to help distinguish this command from that of “VERTITE” (turn). This is particularly pertinent when marching as commands can sometimes be misheard.
As for “DEXTRORSUM FLECTITE” except the left foot is moved first and the body rotated through an angle of 45° to the left.
This section contains some slightly more advanced foot drill where the commands generally require a larger squad to carry them out properly.
Note: The movement depends on how the squad is formed and the individual's position within it. Remember whether “UNUM ORDINEM” (one rank) was formed from two ranks or two files throughout the subsequent drill as eventually the squad will reform in “DUOS ORDINES” (two ranks).
When in two Ranks:
The Front Rank stands fast.
(1) The Rear Rank takes one pace forward with the left foot but to the left at an angle of 45°.
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(2) Without pausing, the right foot is brought towards the left but forward one pace and placed flat and firm on the ground in the interval between the men in the front rank.
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​(3) Finally, the left foot is moved smartly to beside the right, flat and firm on the ground, to resume the correct position of “INTENTE”.
When in two Files:
The Front Rank stands fast.
(1) The Rear Rank takes one pace forward with the left foot but to the left at an angle of 45°.
(2) Without pausing, t
he right foot is brought towards the left but forward one pace and placed flat and firm on the ground in the interval between the men in the front rank.
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(3) Finally, the left foot is moved smartly to beside the right, flat and firm on the ground, to resume the correct position of “INTENTE”.
From “UNUM ORDINEM”, the command “DUOS ORDINES FACITE” reforms the squad to its original starting position, either two ranks or two files.
To re-form Two Ranks:
The Rear Rank, i.e. those who moved to form one rank, takes one pace directly rearward with the left foot. Without pausing, take one extended pace with the right foot rearwards and sideways to the right at an angle of 45°. Finish in the original place covering the front rank by closing the left foot to the right foot at the position of “INTENTE” .
From “UNUM ORDINEM” (One Rank), the command “DUOS ORDINES FACITE” reforms the squad to its original starting position, either two ranks or two files.
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To re-form Two Files:
All except the two men in the original front rank return to their original positions. Those moving a significant distance rearwards may turn around to reach their position.
Note: It is more common to re-form the squad in Two Files by using the command “DUOBUS ORDINIBUS, PROCEDITE”. This command re-forms the two files and allows the squad to march off in one movement (see “Basic Foot Drill - on the March”).
The command “PAR, IMPAR CLAMATE” is used to divide the squad by files into odds and evens. The com mand is normally used with the squad formed in “UNUM ORDINEM”.
On the word of command “IMPAR”, the head and eyes are turned through an angle of 90° to the right so that they look squarely over the right shoulder.​
Immediately on the executive of the command “CLAMATE”, the Miles Dexter (Right Marker) shouts “IMPAR”. The man to the left of the Miles Dexter shouts “PAR” at the same time snapping his head and eyes to the front. Each man shouts “IMPAR” or “PAR” in succession from the right while snapping head and eyes to the front. The last man indicates the end of the line by adding the rank of the officer in command, e.g. “PAR, CENTURIO”.
Note: It is important to remember whether one is “IMPAR” or “PAR” as the next command will often direct one or the other to move.
One full pace of 750 mm (30 in) is taken forwards with the left foot, placing the foot flat and firm on the ground. A further full pace of 750 mm (30 in) is taken forwards with the right foot, again placing the foot flat and firm on the ground. The left foot is moved smartly to beside the right to resume the correct position of “INTENTE”.
One full pace of 750 mm (30 in) is taken rearwards with the left foot, placing the foot flat and firm on the ground. A further full pace of 750 mm (30 in) is taken rearwards with the right foot, again placing the foot flat and firm on the ground. The left foot is moved smartly to beside the right to resume the correct position of “INTENTE”.
Note: The previous commands apply equally to ALL ranks unless a particular rank is named in the Introductory word of the command, e.g.:
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Par / Impar (Pah / Im-pah): Even / Odd Files.
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Primus Ordo (Pree-moos Ord-oh): Front Rank.
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Novissimus Ordo (No-wis-see-moos Ord-oh): Rear Rank.
The command “AB SIGNIS DISCEDITE” (lit. “break the ranks”) enables an individual or squad to dismiss or fall out from a parade, in a smart, uniform manner.
Immediately on the Executive word of command, perform a “DEXTRORSUM FLECTITE” as previously described. Once the movement is completed, pause for a count of three, then fall out of the squad.
Put simply, Marching is walking in step with others. However, each individual must maintain the correct dressing, aligning oneself with and covering others within a squad. Marching therefore needs practice - and concentration - to do perform it smartly and in a soldierly fashion.
Unless otherwise instructed the squad always Marches at Attention, i.e. “ITE INTENTE” (Ee-tay In-ten-tay). “ITE QUIETE” (Ee-tay Kwee-ay-tay) - March at Ease - may be ordered when conditions allow, in this position the body may be relaxed and the head turned sideways, if desired. “ITE OTIOSE” (Ee-tay Oh-tee-oh-say) - March Easy - is similar except that quiet conversation is also permitted.
When armed with a sword, the right hand is used to steady it on the March by curling the fingers round the handgrip, back of the hand facing outward. The right hand is always returned smartly to the side at the Halt.
The Roman passus (pace) has a total length of 5 Roman feet. Each passus was therefore equivalent to two regulation British Army paces of 750 mm (30 in). However, the Roman Army had two types of pace depending on circumstances:
The Long Pace - the normal marching pace of 750 mm (30 in).
The Military Pace - a short clipped pace of 375 mm (15 in) used mainly for manoeuvring in the Testudo and similar formations.
Note: When marching the cadence is called by the Drill Squad commander, or a nominated deputy, to assist everyone with staying in step. The shortened form “SIN” for “SINISTER” (left) is used when a step forward is taken with the left foot, and “DEX” for “DEXTER” (right) when the right foot moves.
The use of “SIN” and “DEX” is an anachronism and not attested in the Roman army. We only know of the paces described above. So, if challenged on the historical accuracy of using the cadence, politely explain to the challenger that we are not professional soldiers and thus use it purely as an aid to staying in step.