Manicae

Author: Brown, P., (2007), “The Manica in the Roman Army up to 150 AD”, first published in The Imperial Courier, Volume 2, Issue 5, THE RMRS, pp. 2-8.

Introduction The find identified as parts of a manica from excavations in Carlisle have required a reappraisal of the conclusions about their introduction and use (more than merely protection from the Dacian falx), and old finds such as those from Newstead to be re-evaluated. Based on these finds, several re-enactment groups, most notably the Ermine Street Guard and The Roman Military Research Society (THE RMRS), have had manicae reconstructed for practical experimentation. This article intends to pull together the many excellent articles and book chapters on the manica in the early Imperial Roman period (up to AD 150) to give amateur historians and re-enactors alike an easily accessible reference on the subject. The aim, therefore, is to give a short history of the manica (what it is, when it was used), review the evidence whether written, sculptural, mosaic, or most importantly actual Roman period finds. Possible re-constructions and experiences of modern users will be described before drawing some conclusions.

What is a manica? For our purposes, a manica is defined as a type of iron or copper alloy (typically bronze) arm guard, with curved and overlapping metal segments or plates, fastened to leather straps, worn by Roman gladiators called crupellarii, and later optionally by soldiers. The study of textile and leather arm protectors has been left to other, more knowledgeable individuals.

Manicae (along with metal greaves) are attested as supplemental metal body armour on several reliefs depicting the Emperor Trajan’s campaigns in Dacia (modern Romania), including the Tropaeum Traiani at Adamclisi and Trajan's Column. The latter, a more stylised depiction in Rome, seems to suggest that lorica segmentata and manicae were only issued to Roman-born legionaries and not to auxiliaries. However, the Tropaeum Traiani, which is considered a better guide to the reality of field equipment, portrays Roman legionaries and heavy infantry auxiliaries equipped in the same fashion - both wearing scale body armour with arm guards.

Hellenistic history The manica has a long history, with Xenophon describing cavalry of 4th-/5th-century BC equipped with an articulated armguard, a χεῖρα (“kheira”, meaning “hand”) on the left arm in place of a shield. Pieces of an iron armguard were found, and armguards are also depicted in the sculpture at the Temple of Athena at Pergamon. At Ai Knaum, another segmented armguard was found in the Hellenistic arsenal dated to 150 BC. This example had a large upper plate and about 35 over-lapping curved plates, apparently “under-lapping” from the hand/wrist plates, i.e. with each plate being under the next as it ascends the arm. This arrangement would protect and deflect a sword or spear thrust. The opposite way (plates over-lapping downwards) would deflect the enemy's spear point into the gap between the plates towards the unprotected arm, which, on balance, is probably not a good idea.

Roman evidence Gladiators demonstrate a wide variety of armguards in metal, leather, and padding. A key development came with the crupellarius - a heavily armed gladiator of Gaulish origin. Tacitus describes their use fighting against legionaries in the revolt of Florus and Sacrovir of AD 21:

“There was also a party of slaves training to be gladiators. Completely encased in iron in the national fashion, these crupellarii, as they were called, were too clumsy for offensive purposes but impregnable in defence…the infantry made a frontal attack. The Gallic flanks were driven in. The iron-clad contingent caused some delay as their casing resisted javelins and swords. However, the Romans used axes and mattocks and struck at their plating and its wearers like men demolishing a wall. Others knocked down the immobile gladiators with poles and pitchforks, and, lacking the power to rise, they were left for dead.” (Tacitus, Annales, III, 43)

As it happens, a bronze figure was found at Versigny, France that matches this description (shown right). As can be seen, the segmentation covered both arms, body, and legs. A rather wonderful re-enactment of this “Ned Kelly” of the Roman world has been made by Familia Gladiatoria of Hungary - and it is a sight that must have impressed watching soldiers. Further evidence, this time placing the metal manica firmly in the Roman army, comes from the tombstones found in Mainz of Sextus Valerus Severus (Cll 13, 06978) and Gaius Annius Salutus (Cll 13, 06953), both legionaries of Legio XXII Primigenia who were based in Mainz between AD 43 and AD 70.

Their tombstones show manicae as part of the decorative border of weaponry surrounding the text of the tombstone. Severus' manica shows eleven plates and a hand shaped section of four plates (though it would be unwise to rely on this sculptural reference as opposed to the archaeological finds). Yet, this clearly places the manica as being used - although rarely - by Roman legions on the Rhine around AD 43 to AD 70.

Roman evidence AD 50 to AD 150 The most useful source is the sculptural evidence of the Tropaeum Traiani metopes at Adamklissi, constructed c. AD 107/8 and depicting Trajan's Dacian wars. Although the same campaign as shown on Trajan's Column, the equipment depicted is very different. As a monument erected closer to the front line and the actual veterans of the fighting, and less an official propaganda monument like the Column, Adamklissi is generally regarded as being more accurate in its depiction of the troops. Of the metopes showing troops in battle, virtually all show legionaries wearing manicae on their sword or spear arm. Those not wearing manicae appear as auxiliaries (metope XIV) and cavalry (metope 1). Although the stone is damaged, one legionary, dressed in mail with a scutum (metope XXIX), does not appear to wear a manica. Some other metopes have suffered similar or worse damage, and it is not possible to conclusively prove that manicae are depicted in these pieces. However, troops marching or off-duty, standard bearers, cornicens, attending senior officers, or those holding captives do not wear manicae. Legionaries are shown in mail or scale, and in only one metope (XLIV) in lorica segmentata as on Trajan's Column. Helmets with cross-bracing and greaves are also depicted. Auxilaries are shown in mail, with senior officers in lorica musculata.

It is understandable that the theory grew that the manicae was fielded to combat the fearsome Dacian falx, whose wielders were later to guard the Emperor himself (see column of Marcus Aurelius and coinage). However, archaeological finds elsewhere invalidate this theory.

Archaeological Evidence A number of finds have been made or subsequently recognised as manicae. The first from the Waffenmagazin at Carnuntum was followed by the copper alloy curved plates from Newstead, which also provided pieces belonging to an iron manica. The finds both came from wells in the respective headquarters building (the Newstead well had also acted to conserve the Newstead lorica segmentata). The finds were (incorrectly) described by Robinson as thigh guards, but the finds are probably not complete as the originals had more plates (lames). Further plates have now been identified from Richborough, Newstead, Corbridge, Eining, Leon, and possibly complete manicae have been found at Carlisle and at Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa in Dacia (modern Romania). The finds of manicae therefore stretch across the Roman Empires and cannot be simply a defence against falx-men. From a Hadrianic context the Carlisle finds of what appears to be one complete iron manica are the most important. X-ray images taken when it was found convincingly show the manica plates under-lapped from the wrist to provide better defence against a thrust. One example has surviving copper-alloy ring fittings; another a hook similar to the fastenings on lorica segmentata.

Roman evidence post-AD 150 After AD 150, more evidence is provided by Gladiator manicae, with both mosaics and references to manicaril at the gladiator training schools during the reign of Commodus. Moreover, the 2nd- or 3rd-century AD relief at Alba Julia (above right) shows a legionary wearing a segmentata (of unique design) and a manica. In Dura Europos, the famous clibanarii graffito appears to depict manicae, which are echoed in medieval copies of the (much) later Notitia Dignitum. Furthermore, a fragment of iron laminated armour with the plates over-lapping upwards, probably a limb defence, has also been found. Finally, Ammianus describes Roman cavalry on parade in AD 350 as “Laminarum circuli tenues apti corporis flexibus ambiebant per omnia membra diducti” (“Thin circles of iron plates, fitted to the curves of their bodies, completely covered their limbs”).

Re-creating the manica Based on the work of Dr Mike Bishop, the armguards had approximately 35 iron/steel or copper alloy plates, articulated on internal leathers fastened by copper alloy rivets, below the main upper plate. This upper plate (based on the Newstead find) is 25.8 cm long and 9 cm wide, with a turned upper edge and holes for the attachment of a lining and straps. The descending plates taper down to the smallest of 12 cm long. The lower plates were 2.7 cm wide. By comparison, the Carlisle manica's main plates varied between 25 and 30 mm wide, again shortening as they descended the wearer's arm. At the wrist, the Eining and Leon examples were riveted together and not articulated. Some kind of padding also existed, as Van Groller noted the remains of linen and leather pieces. The Newstead manica also had fragments of leather surviving when it was first found.

From using reconstructions, both Susanna Shadrake and the re-enactment group Britannia noted the tendency of recreated manicae to rotate around the arm in combat. Likewise, other groups have reported something similar when versions of this arm protection are used in simulated battle. The effect can be counterbalanced by a disc being worn around the pectoral area, as seen in the mosaic reproduced on the cover of Susanna Shadrake's highly recommended book “The World of the Gladiator” (right). While no unequivocal evidence has so far been found of such discs in a military context, some such device seems likely. Nevertheless, Britannia's experiments have demonstrated that an unsecured metal manica needs a strap, like a baldric, passing under the shield arm if it is not to slip down under its own weight. This is unlike a padded manica made of fabric which, by contrast, stays in place because of the thongs tying it to the arm.

Considerations of use strongly suggest that the manica was primarily worn on the upper side of the arm, and not over the elbow (as shown in the illustration by Jim Bowers above). This makes sense if one considered that the upper surface would be the most exposed part of the arm when wielding a sword. Such an argument is further supported since the manica design removes the need for a medieval-style “couter” that allows the manica to encompass the elbow joint. Of note, no such plate has yet been found.

While this idea seemingly contradicts some sculptural representations and other depictions of gladiators, its acceptance is warranted by the actual finds to date. Where the width of each lames is lengthened, the more completely it could encircle the arm and the manica would appear to encase the arm. It can only be hoped that future finds will shed more light on alternative designs.

Overall, in reconstructing the manica, the following components are needed:

• One Shoulder plate.

• Approximately 35 lames.

• 90 - 120 leathering copper-alloy rivets.

• Three to four internal leathers.

• One Padded fabric or leather lining.

Conclusion The manica had a long history, entering Roman army use between AD 21 and AD 70, and were widely used throughout the Empire. At present, only use by legionaries is attested but it may prove that auxiliary soldiers also wore this form of arm protection. Manicae appear to be an item of combat equipment and not used day-today. Indeed, on “official sculpture", like that on Trajan’s Column, depictions of the manica are notably absent. Yet on “front line” sculpture like that on the Tropaeum Triani at Adamclisi or from the Rhineland, segmented arm protection is shown. We can only speculate as to why this might be, but it might be thought that an item of equipment associated with gladiators should not be shown worn by the citizen soldiers of Rome.

---

Recommended reading:

Bishop, M. C., (2002), Lorica Segmentata Volume 1: Handbook of Roman Plate Armour, The Armatura Press.

Bishop, M. C., & Coulston, J.C.N., (2006), Roman Military Equipment from the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome (Second Edition), Oxbow Books.

Curle, J., (1911), A Roman Frontier Post and Its People: The Fort of Newstead in the Parish of Melrose, James Maclehose & Sons.

James, S., (2004), The Excavations at Dura-Europos 1928 to 1937 Final Report VII: The Arms and Armour and other Military Equipment, British Museum Press.

Robinson, H.R., (1975), The Armour of Imperial Rome, Arms & Armour Press.

Shadrake, S., (2005), The World of the Gladiator, The History Press.